Away From Her †A Film Review Essay

The film Away From Her, is a screenplay adaptation from the short story Bear came over the Mountain by Alice Munro. The story focuses around the relationship of Fiona and Grant, an Ontario couple married over 40 years. The couple is forced to face that fact that Fionas forgetfulness is actually Alzheimers disease. After Fiona wanders away and is found after being lost, she realizes that she can no longer live at home. Fiona has too much self-pride for herself, and too much pity for Grant, to subject him to her deteriorating mind. She makes the decision on her own to check into a comfortable nearby nursing home. The nursing home they choose has a no-visitors policy for the first thirty days of the patients stay, to let them adjust to their new settings. When Grant visits Fiona after the first month of her staying in the nursing home, he finds out that not only has she forgotten him, but Fiona has transferred her feelings to another man. The other man is Aubrey, a wheelchair bound mute patient at the nursing home. His wife Marian later moves Aubrey out of the home. As the distance between Grant and Fiona increases, Grant must sacrifice his own happiness for Fiona. This moving story, was told from the perspective of the director and screenplay writer, Sarah Polley. I believe that she used the films focus of Alzheimer, humour and intimacy between the characters to show an honest relationship of a forty-year marriage. Objectively the film is the struggle of relationship with a women suffering from Alzheimers. I think that the director, Sarah Polley used role of Alzheimers in the film as a metaphor for how memory plays out in a long relationship: what we choose to remember what we choose to forget. At a point in the film, where Grant drove Fiona, we get a glimmer that their marriage wasnt all like it seemed to be. Fiona mentions a younger woman, a student of Grants who somehow had an impact of their marriage. Although Fiona doesnt come out right and say it, the film implies that Grant may have cheated or at least was tempted to cheat on her. After that incident, he swore he would do anything for her. Grant retired from the university and they moved out to the cottage on the lake, where the two have lived ever since. It is interesting to see that memory is selective, and that through the whole disease she still seems to remember the things she wishes she would forget. Polley explores the dynamics of the survival of a long  marriage, managing to do so without having to rely on flashbacks of a romantic past. The only flashback we see in the film is a screen shot of Fiona as a young woman smiling, no dialogue, just the image. I think the image isnt mean to represents a romantic past of their younger years, but an ideal of health that Grant wishes he had back. He is attempting to cope with a new Fiona he doesnt recognize, nor who recognizes him. I think the film shows Grant discovering himself after being married to somebody for so long, realizing what unconditional love meant at the end of their marriage. In this case Grant reaches out to Marian, Aubreys wife to convince her that Aubrey come to visit Fiona. Sarah Polley also uses subtle humour in her film. The humour in film provided relief to the tension of the film and also gave insight to the bigger perspective of life itself. The film focus is surrounding a debilitating disease and its impact on others, so it is important for comedic relief. For example, Fiona jokes with Grant about not remembering where he was going, later adding in a just kidding. Although the films humour is not very substantial, I think it represents the idea that life goes on. I think that this is also characterized through the relationship that develops between Grant and Marian. Marian is a pretty witty older lady, and the dynamic of her and Grant is hilarious. Marian is straight to the point, strong spoken, while Grant is more passive in his speaking. I think that this dynamic may have been similar to of Grants and Fionas relationship, although Fiona appears to be more classy than Marian. Fiona used humour subtly after learning of her condition. Even her appointment with the doctor, she was using humour in some form to answer the doctors question. I think the use of humour is a coping mechanism for Fiona, but also shows her strength of character. Fionas acceptance of her diagnosis is shown through her swift actions and her positive behaviour such as humour, proves her strength of character. I think that this adds to the proof of her real courage and strength, which helps to give evidence to her and Grants marriage being able to last over forty years. The last item that I believe the director wanted to address was the idea of a sexual relationship among older adults. In a few parts of the movie, there  are intimate encounters between Fiona and Grant, and Grant and Marian. Many films, for example the Notebook, and others that deal with people in their 60s and 70s, give off the idea that they are very sweet and sexless. Although it is somewhat seem as taboo that elderly dont engage in sexual activity, I think that Polley used this as part of a way to show the true honesty of the relationship. We are not given some cookie cutter idea of the marriage. Polley used the opportunity of showcasing intimacy among older people, as a sign that there is a reason why people are together for so long. There arent just meaningful conversations; there is actual chemistry still there between two people after all those years. There is truth to the relationship, whether it be their apparent intimacy level, or the trials and tribulations they have go ne through over the years. After watching the film, I could see why it received so many awards. Julie Christie, played her part brilliantly, with the ability to balance a person with Alzheimers enough so that it is clear her mind is deteriorating, but not too much that she comes off as crazy. You see a significant change in her mannerisms and speaking from the start of the movie from the end of the movie. I think her role impeccably shows the disease of Alzheimers in a way that is real, and gives meaning to the clear changes that the family has to go through. I found it interesting that after thirty days she had forgotten Grant, and never retained any memory of him. I longed for her to show some glimmer of memory, whether it be a song and scent, but that day never came. I was very much moved by the relationship between Grant and Fiona. The relationship seemed very realistic, the dynamics between the two did not seemed forced by anyway. I appreciated the fact that there was truth to their long span of marriage, such as the altercation between Grant and one of his students. Even though this happened, the two stuck together for better and for worse. The fact that among the beginning of her disease Fiona still had memory of this, shows the significance it had on their marriage. I also thought that it was important to show that they still were intimate, and had chemistry between the two. It signified how important they were to one another and how difficult it was for Grant to accept Fionas condition, but his willingness and persistence to stay by her side. This movie gave a  true portrait of real life couples, struggling with day to day life, a marriage isnt one huge love story, it takes a mutual commitment. The whole aspect of Alzheimers is quite foreign to me. One set of my grandparents are deceased, while the other I am not super close to. There is a language barrier between my grandmother and I, making it difficult to communicate. She has begun to show some forgetfulness, but it hasnt really progressed into anything serious. I think that the if I was more aware of the effects of Alzheimers on a personal level, I may be more effected by the film and Fionas condition. I think that Alzheimers would be the most horrifying diseases for me. In the beginning, between episodes of memory and no memory, I think I would really struggle with dealing with the disease. When I was coherent of what was happening, that I was not remembering things would probably really upset me. I like that feeling of being in control, so not being able to remember simple things would really bother me. As time goes on through the film, I really start to feel for Grant, because at this point I dont think Fiona realize what is going on. Although it is sad for Fiona, she is unaware what is going on, while Grant is forced to deal with the disease as well. I think that it was sad to see Grant become aware that the Alzheimers disease is the beginning of the end and will ultimately result in his wifes death. I think that as he sat in the dining room hall watching the patients, he observed various stages of Alzheimers, becoming aware of what was to come in the near future. Another impact of the film on me, was the budding relationship between Grant and Marian. I found it difficult to understand the timeline of the film, because it seemed to switch back and forth between the past and present. However, I think it was important for Grant to develop a relationship with Marian. I think he needed that support from somebody who knew what he was going through. It also gave hope the notion that there is something for him to look forward too, despite of his situation with his wife. He had somebody he could rely on, be intimate with and share a connection with. It shows that all human strive for that connection with people, and he had lost that with his wife due to her disease. The biggest problem I had was with the ending of the film. In the end, Grant convinces Marian to bring Aubrey back to the nursing home to visit Fiona. The connection that bonded Fiona and Aubrey together everyday was ripped apart, when Marian took Aubrey out of the home. Fiona seemed to miss Aubrey, but the mention of him decreased as time went on. However, Grant convinced for the meeting to happen. However, in the end when Grant tells her that Aubrey was there, Fiona had forgotten who Aubrey was. This was the end of the movie, and it was truly heartbreaking. The effort that Grant put in for this to happen didnt even matter in the end. Although it gives justice to the true effects of the disease, I had wished for a happy ending. Whether it be Fiona remembers Aubrey or Grant. However, Polley stayed consistent with her depiction of a real life relationship right until the end of the film. In conclusion, I overall enjoyed the film Away from Her. The film focused around the story of an elderly couple, Grant and Fiona, who are forced to deal with Fionas diagnose of Alzheimers. The director, Sarah Polley used a combination of humour and human intimacy to depict a true honest relationship of a long lasting marriage. I found the movie somewhat moving, enjoying the dynamic relationship of Fiona, Grant, Aubrey and Marian. I would have been more impacted if I had a personal experience related to Alzheimers, but still found the film moving. I wish the film had ended differently, in a way that she would somehow recognize Grants efforts for his love for Fiona. Bibliography: Opinion Piece about FilmAway From Her. Film (2006)

Use of Computer in Pharmacy

Communication: Computers are used within pharmacies to facilitate communication. From email to other Internet-based messaging systems, online communication allows pharmacists and other pharmacy staff to keep in contact both within their own organization and within the professional community. Some pharmacy companies have their own Intranet systems for internal communications over the Internet. Prescription Processing: Prescription processing is invariably one of the main activities going on within a pharmacy on a day-to-day basis, and computers are used to make this process more reliable and efficient.Both the customer service side of pharmacy operation and the dispensing aspect are today carried out through the use of computing systems. Pharmacy computers also handle customer service activities such as sales and cash handling within the retail operation. Information: Having access to the Web via pharmacy computers is something that has enhanced the ability of pharmacists to carry out their duties to a higher standard.As well as giving the pharmacy staff access to the vast store of information that is available on the Internet, including those on specialist pharmacy resources, the Internet connects pharmacists to their peers on a global scale. Professional communities for pharmacists operate on-line, creating an atmosphere that is conducive to professional development. Databases: Computer databases for information about medicines, and medical treatment in general, are used within pharmacies.These database systems allow pharmacy staff to find out information about any potential conflicts or health-care problems in a prescribed treatment, as well as information about the details of any particular medicine the pharmacist needs to know more about. This information may include ingredients and potential effects as well as research and scientific data. Error Prevention: Pharmacy computer systems can help to prevent errors in medication, potentially saving lives and gen erally preserving the health of patients.As well as checking medicines and combinations of medicines, these systems can in some cases check on patient information. The availability of such systems varies across the different geographical areas, but in some cases pharmacy computers are able to check on prescribed medicines with specific reference to a patient and their overall health-care picture. Conclusion: We can say that computer is very useful for us. In clinical Pharmacy, Community Pharmacy and hospital Pharmacy crying need to use computer.

Food Insecurity. Definition, Reasons, Causes and Status Essay

Food Insecurity. Definition, Reasons, Causes and Status - Essay Example In the discussion, the focus will remain on reviewing what food insecurity denotes, what causes it and the consequences that accrue thereof. The discussion is based on a critical evaluation of peer-reviewed literature beginning with the definition and then discussing what causes it, and how it emerges in the developing world. Defining and Contextualizing Food Insecurity The Context of Food Security Since the 1970s, the term food insecurity has been differently used to refer to numerous related but often diverse concepts. Yu, You, and Fan (2010) argue, â€Å"there are various descriptions of food security plus the concepts of food security that have evolved, in the previous 30 years, to reflect the transformation in official policy thinking† (p. 30). This variant understanding of food security and insecurity has been explored by Clay (2002) since the World Food Conference initiated a discussion of food security in the early 1970s, both at the national and international level. A s shall emerge hereunder, food security encompasses questions of food supply, food availability, food price stability, geographical locations and typology of available food (Bernstein, Crow and Johnson, 1992, pp. 34 - 71). However, to understand the term food insecurity, it is essential to first contextualize the term food security. According to the United Nations, food security should be defined as â€Å"all people at all times having both physical and economic access to the basic food they need† (Clay, 2002, p. 4). According to UN figures, nearly 1 billion people in the world today are not guaranteed that they can access, afford and always find adequate food. For these 2 billion people, they may not be hungry and in critical need of food, but they cannot guarantee that they will have anything to eat tomorrow to sufficiently sustain their health. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (2013), â€Å"a total of 842 million people in 2011–2013, or about one in eight individuals globally, were anticipated to be suffering from chronic hunger, regularly not getting enough food to conduct an active life† ( ¶7). While this figure is relatively lower when compared to the 868 million people reported between 2010 and 2012, and while the number of undernourished people has reduced with 17% from what was recorded between 1990 and 1992, food insecurity is still a major global problem. As such, they are insecure about the source of their requisite diets, where to find food, when and whether such food would be affordable when accessed (Curtis, Hubbard and Shepherd, 1988, 37). This context thus introduces the dynamics of food security, a complicated process determined by numerous factors from poverty levels to climatic conditions, from geography to governance, from education and awareness to culture (Grigg, 1993, p. 21; Curtis, Hubbard and Shepherd, 1988, p. 61; Bernstein, Crow and Johnson, 1992, p. 69; Kent, 1984, p. 23). The key question, therefore, is about guarantee that food will be available when needed, as well as which type of food will be avai

Self evaluation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 3

Self evaluation - Essay Example My voice tone also reflected various points that were being passed during the speech. To emphasize a point I made sure my tone had a sense of finality unlike at times when I was just stating basic points when my tone was relaxed. As I was preparing for my speech I practiced several times before the mirror to ensure that my body language added credibility to my talk. To make it more effective I made sure there were slight pauses as I gave my talk to ensure the listeners had a few seconds to deliberate over what I just said. I also made use of notes that carried the major points that I covered in my talk. In this way I could just take a glance at them and I could recall the whole point. The introduction is clearly outlined in the first paragraph and does its role of introducing the subject matter. It informs us about Facebook and gives a brief description and background information about the social site. The body contains discussions on the social network site and this is done in detail, starting from more information about the site to the various topics in regards to the site: such as the criticisms to the site and the media impact that the site has on the general population. The conclusion part of my essay was not clearly laid out. This is because after the last discussion point my talk ended. There should be a discussion that summarizes all the points that have been discussed and lets my listeners know my stand in relation to Facebook. Before my next presentation there are several things that I will ensure I do. One of these is practice the speech in front of a mock crowd. This is important as I will be able to evaluate whether all the relevant points were covered and if my presentation was clear as expected. Another thing that I can do to increase the effectiveness of my presentation is to include examples and exact statistics. For example when I write that Facebook has led

Software engineering Module assessment 2 Assignment

Software engineering Module assessment 2 - Assignment Example SCRUM views the systems development process as a collection of actions that integrate known workable mechanisms and procedures with the best development team to develop systems. Since these actions are loose, controls to handle the process and underlying risks are used. SCRUM is a typical upgrade of the commonly utilised incremental object-oriented development cycle. Although waterfall methodology makes it compulsory the use of undefined processes, it has a huge drawback. Its linear nature gives it this large drawback. The process does not provide way of responding to unanticipated output from any of the transitional stages. This method is analogous to the peeling of onion layers that corresponds to users deciding whether to send prototype back to preceding phases or termination of the development process. Spiral methodology stages and stage processes are linear. Requirement analysis and design activities are conducted in requirements phase and design phase respectively with each of the stages comprising of linear, precisely and clearly communicated defined processes This is an improvement on the Spiral method. Each of the iteration comprises of all phases in standard Waterfall model. Each of these iterations covers a single set of parsed functionality. The overall project deliverable expected is subdivided into designated subsystems, each with clean interfaces. This method allows one to test the feasibility of a subsystem and its technology in the inceptive iterations. Later iterations improve the the project while increasing the speed of delivery. This method increases flexibility, has a better cost control and checks delivery of systems. Nevertheless, the Iterative method is also linear as underlying development processes are still defined and linear. Each of the development technologies improve on another with no significant change. Both the Spiral and Iterative methods implement a risk control techniques

Business Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words - 1

Business - Essay Example Needless to add that the consequences of such actions on the part of the management were met with widespread criticism and public outcry, with the result that the companies lost their brand image and reputation in the eyes of their consumers. Examples such as these, further tend to substantiate the above mentioned quote, and at the same time, illustrate the significance and impact of ethics and morality in business. The twenty first century is witness to a rapidly transforming business approach, which has popularized the concepts of ‘triple bottom lines’ and corporate social responsibility, making ‘green business’ an increasingly fashionable trend. The scope and extent of a company’s contribution towards social and environmental causes, almost guarantees successful results, which is why, every other company, today proudly flaunts its commitment towards such causes, in its annual reports. In today’s highly competitive world, coinciding with the emergence of a knowledge society, the awareness among the public regarding their rights and the availability of products has increased considerably. In such a scenario, any company which strives to maximise their profits without giving back to the society or with a total disregard for business ethics, would become a soft target for a strong public backlash. It is thus imperative for the global businesses to put the common global – social and environmental interests ahead of their own selfish motives, and strive for the betterment of the society we live in as well as the environment around us. The emergence of a new global information society driven by economies of cross-border trade, liberalization and globalization has led to the development of new business practices with a growing emphasis on the adoption and application of innovative business approaches such as the assimilation of morality and ethics with profit and protection of shareholder interests both at the same time (Nissanke and Thorbecke, 2005). This new philosophy or approach towards business has found greater public support and is being increasingly incorporated by giant multi-national firms world-wide. It is widely believed that, the assimilation of ethics and morality as well as corporate social responsibility by global businesses is a positive step towards building a better, safer and healthier business environment where organizations are taking conscious decisions to protect and preserve the larger interests of not only its consumers but also of the society at large (Brownlie et al. 1999). The significance of incorporating ethics and morality in ‘mainstream’ business has been argued and debated over the years, with the result that issue has gained widespread support among researchers, management professionals as well as the general public. It is on account of such growing popularity of the practice that has made it inevitable, for global businesses to adopt such strategies and policies within their corporate agenda, and rethink their global business approaches (Sheth and Sisodia, 1999). Business ethics refers to the ethics of power and deals with the manner in which companies acquire, enhance and implement it for the betterment of their own corporate agendas as well as of communities at large. The need for and significance of incorporating ethics in business is growing like never before (Mahoney, 1997). Nature of business ethics within national and international context: The term ethics

Busniess Environment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Busniess Environment - Essay Example From the Olympic organizing committee Gurgaon-Based Luca Wines is set to toast the London Olympics. This is a good platform for advertisement of the firm considering their products will be supplied in restaurants and hotels. Besides, a public limited firm that will benefit from the London Olympics is the British Airways, which is the aviation transport industry. Many of the athletes are likely to use the reputable airline’s services to and fro the country. Going by the state of economy and the companies that fall in every category, GlaxoSmithKline plc is one of the firms that are set to be affected directly from the London, 2012 Olympics. The firm falls in the manufacturing sector under the pharmaceutical industry. The company produces a variety of products for common ailments such as virus control, infections, mental health, digestive condition and asthma. Notably, in the primary sector firms in the agricultural and fishing industry sector will have a lot to benefit due to th eir sensitivity in terms of food production and supply. The tertiary sector has various firms that will be affected by the London 2012 Olympics. In fact, the banking and other service sectors such as hotel management and hospitality sector. For example, Barclays bank has a lot to benefit from the London Olympics. ... They also include non-profit organizations, which may use it to offer services to the consumers. The cooperative businesses will be directly affected by the games. For example, the Banna Housing Cooperative is one of business that will be affected by the games during the Olympics. In addition, other cooperatives in the financial sector and housing sector are set to be affected directly or indirectly the games. Other Organizations Furthermore, it can be noted that the Olympics will affect other governmental organization and non-governmental organization either directly or indirectly. For instance, environmental agency that is concerned with protection of the environment will be indirectly affected through their duty to ensure a healthy and fresh environment of the participants. Therefore, there are potentials of possible pollution and the accompanying litigations that might occur consequentially. What’s more, some non-governmental organizations are also set to be affected. For instance, UNICEF, which is a non-governmental organization that cares for the rights of children. Various sponsors in relation to cooperate business firms will be involved in the support of the games. Purposes of organizations From the above discussion, it is clear that organizations such as Banna Housing Cooperative have a mission to grow and expand into a bigger firm based on the high demand for housing. The influx of visitors into the famous city calls for provision of shelter. Therefore, the housing sector has a main goal to provide room for everyone with comfort. In provision of good quality homes Banna Housing has intentions to build its reputation to the highest level to better the lives of members. On the other hand, the banking sector has

PEST Analysis for video game store that i'm opened Term Paper

PEST Analysis for video game store that i'm opened - Term Paper Example It should be noted though, that political environment does not necessarily imply the rivalry between top leaders. Instead, it is refers to how tax policy, labor-law, restrictions pertaining to trade are carried out. London, Canada is one of the best places in terms of political stability due to its setting. As far as the real politics is concerned, there has not been a case of political unrest in the city for a very long time. Concerning the taxes, the central government and the local one are the major collectors through various methods. For instance, the local government mostly collects from parking and such services Therefore, London City seems to be a perfect place to start this video store because there is political stability, no exaggeration of taxes not to mention the security. Secondly, economic factors in every city, especially one where a business is started, are very important and have to be investigated extensively. Usually, when the interest rates are low, business people are able to access loans at a lower rate. At this point, it is vital to understand that since the inflation rate is not high, the local people will be able to spare some money to spend on other things. As an informed businessperson, this video game store will have clients from every part of London courtesy of the marketing strategies. One reality about business is that no matter how strategic one may be, if the overall financial status of the target market is poor, the business will have minimal chances of success. Conversely, if the people in a region are financially stable, the businesses have higher probabilities of achieving success. Therefore, this London city is a great opportunity for this video game business to be initiated. The social aspect of every region is an imperative in the analysis of a business location. It is not logical to initiate a business where the locals hardly

Public Utilities Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Public Utilities - Term Paper Example listically behaved sector to a private owned and liberalized one since the 1980s with the privatization of British Telecom and the introduction of competition in the US long distance services (Wallsten, 2001). Based on the theoretical perspectives on privatization, it has been argued that the privatization of telecommunication sector will result in increasing the sector’s efficiency and overall performance. The empirical studies show the results varying in different countries. Given this background, this essay critically evaluates the privatization process of telecommunications all over the world and its impact. This essay is organized as follows. Section 2 discusses the privatization process of telecommunication sector all over the world. Section 3 discusses the theoretical arguments behind privatization. Section 4 discusses the empirical studies son the telecommunications privatization. Section 5 discusses the country experiences in this regard. Section 6 concludes the essay. Due to the importance of telecommunications sector as a vital part of the national infrastructure in each country, the policy makers in this sector are supposed to ensure the availability of telephone to all upon demand, accessibility to the basic services to all people at affordable prices as well as to protect and defend a country’s security interests (Maitra, 2006). Moreover, being a technology intensive sector, the policy makers need to ensure that the country is making use of the most advanced technology in this sector to make use of all the available opportunities in the technology field. The three main challenges in this sector in front of the policy makers in the 1950s and the 1960s in all countries were the fast technological change, the poor performance of the state owned sector including long waiting times for accessing services and limited financial resources for availing new technologies that facilitate the growth in this sector (Maitra, 2006). Consequently, the three

Mike Tyson; Its Not What You Think Essay Example for Free

Mike Tyson; Its Not What You Think Essay This biographical sketch will explore Mike Tyson’s life of victories, personal, and professional losses. Mike Tyson, born Michael Gerard Tyson, was born June 30, 1966, in Brooklyn, New York to Jimmy Kirkpatrick and Lorna Tyson. Jimmy abandoned the family in 1968, when Mike was two years old, leaving Lorna to care for Mike and his two siblings, Rodney and Denise. My selection of Mike Tyson for a case study was based a several intriguing factors about him that gained my attention. Any documentary and/or interview that I’ve viewed on Mike Tyson, I initially look into his eyes. The eyes are the window to our souls, and his eyes share the pains he’s suffered in his life. Over the past 27 years, Mike Tyson has been described as erratic, volatile, and somewhat unstable. His mother, Lorna was an alcoholic and died from cancer when he was only 16 and his sister, Denise died of a heart attack due to obesity in 1991 at the age of 25, little is known about his father, Jimmy. The oldest sibling Rodney is a physician assistant in the trauma center of a Los Angeles hospital. As a boy Tyson became a pickpocket on public buses, rolled drunks and mugged old ladies of their purses. By the time he was 13, he had been arrested 38 times. Tyson lived in and around high crime neighborhood throughout his pre-teen and adolescent years. His very first fight was with a neighborhood youth that was larger than him, who had removed the head of one of Tyson’s pigeons. Mike was transferred to a reform school for boys in Johnstown, New York, where he met a counselor named Bob Stewart, who was also a former amateur boxing champion. Stewart trained Mike on how to use his fist to fight; Mike was so determined to learn everything about boxing. He would often sneak out of bed after curfew to practice throwing punches in the dark. In 1980, Mike was introduced to the late legendary boxing manager, Cus D’Amato. D’Amato provided room and board for Mike, and developed a close relationship with him. Mike looked to D’Amato as his mentor and as a father. Tys on was classified as learning disabled because he could only read at the level of a seventh grader while in high school. After the death of his mother, he was expelled from Catskill High School and continued schooling through private tutors as he prepared for the 1984 Olympic trials. Developmental Psychology is defined as the study of physical and cognitive changes from birth until death. (M.U.S.E., 2010) Physical changes are measured by height, weight, and strengths during the different stages of your life; beginning with conception through childhood, and adolescence through adulthood and eventually death. (M.U.S.E., 2010) Motivation is defined as forces determining behavior; the biological, emotional, cognitive, or social forces that activate and direct behavior. (Encarta, 2012) There are several theories stating various opinions on motivation, the most popular being Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs. It argues that we as individuals are motivated to satisfy a specific need, when we have a sense of belonging we are motivated by a desire to be held in esteem. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs are as follows: self-actualization (doing your own best thing), esteem (need to be recognized, self-respect, and respect of others), belonging (being accepted, be coming a part of something), safety (psychological, physical, secure), physiological (sex, hunger, rest). (Goal, 2013) Personality is defined as the totality of somebody’s attitudes, interests, behavioral patterns, emotional responses, social roles, and other individual traits that endure over long periods of time. During an independent medical evaluation performed in September 1998 for the Nevada State Athletic Commission, Tyson gave a history of repeated head injuries as a child. The injuries included multiple episodes of loss of consciousness as a result of being struck with various objects during street fights. During this evaluation process, Tyson was also questioned about symptoms of depression. After eight visits with a psychiatrist, Tyson was diagnosed with â€Å"dysthymic disorder† (chronic depression) and issues related to his personality by Dr. Richard Goldberg, MD, prior to the independent medical evaluation. It’s difficult to assess when this disorder began, before the evaluation took place, Tyson’s boxing license was suspended for biting Evander Holyfield’s ear during a boxing match. Dysthymic disorder is a type of chronic depression when a person’s moods are regularly low. The symptoms are not as severe as with other major depression disorders. The main symptom of this disorder is a low, dark, or sad mood on most days for a period of two years. Dysthymic disorders increase the risk of suicide. Some patients recover completely, while others continue to display the symptoms, even with treatment. (Fava, 2008) Psychology in the workplace helps employees and enterprises to achieve truly sustainable growth in workplace performance. Porath, MacInnis, Folkes (2010) found that when an employee mistreated or was uncivil (e.g., being rude or discourteous, ignoring or making derogatory remarks, passing blame for their own mistakes, belittling the efforts of others, etc.) toward another employee, customers who witnessed it tended to â€Å"make negative generalizations about (a) others who work for the firm, (b) the firm as a whole, and (c) future encounters with the firm, inferences that [went] well beyond the incivility incident† (p. 292). What researchers discovered was that â€Å"consumers [were] also negatively affected even when they [were] mere observers of incivility between employees† (Porath et al., 2010, p. 301). A survey of public sector employees in the United States found that 71% of respondents reported at least some experience of workplace incivility from a supervisor or coworker (e.g., being treated rudely or discourteously, having a coworker or boss ignore or make derogatory remarks, being blamed for a colleague’s mistakes, being belittled, having someone set them up to fail, being shut out of a team, etc.) during the previous 5 years, and 6% reported experiencing such behavior many times (Cortina, Magley, Williams, Langhout, 2001). Lim, Cortina, and Magley (2008) found that (1) â€Å"uncivil work experiences also appear to have a direct negative influence on mental health† (p. 104), (2) employees who experienced incivility were more likely to be dissatisfied with their boss and coworkers than with the job itself, and (3) those personal experiences of workplace incivility can lead to them eventually quitting their jobs. References M.U.S.E., â€Å"Conception through childhood and Adulthood† (2010) Mike Tyson. (2012). Biography.com. http://www.biography.com/people/mike-tyson Fava M, Cassano P. Mood disorders: major depressive disorder and dysthymic disorder. In: Stern TA, Rosenbaum JF, Fava M, Biederman J, Rauch SL, eds. Comprehensive Clinical Psychiatry. 1st ed. Philadelphia, Pa: Mosby Elsevier; 2008 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0001916/ Holmes, Leonard. (2006) Mike Tyson’s Assessment. Retrieved from About.com Mental Health http://mentalhealth.about.com/cs/academicpsychology/a/tyson_2.htm Cortina, L. M., Magley, V. J., Williams, J. H., Langhout, R. D. (2001). Incivility in the workplace: Incidence and impact. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 6(1), 64-80. Lim, S., Cortina, L. M., Magley, V. J. (2008). Personal and workgroup incivility: Impact on work and health outcomes. Journal of Applied Psychology, 93(1), 95-107. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.93.1.95 Pearson, C. Porath, C. (2009). The cost of bad behavior: How incivility is damaging your business and what to do about it. New York, NY: Portfolio. Porath, C., MacInnis, D., Folkes, V. (2010). Witnessing incivility among employees: Effects on consumer anger and negative inferences about companies. Journal of Consumer Research, 37(2), 292-303.

Formulation and Characterization of Microemulsion System

Formulation and Characterization of Microemulsion System Abstract Formulation of a new oil-in-water (o/w) microemulsion composed of Castor oil/Tween 80/Ethanol/Phosphate buffer for enhancing the loading capacity of an anti-inflammatory drug piroxicam has been accomplished. The pseudo-ternary phase diagram has been delineated at constant surfactant/cosurfactant ratio (1:2). The internal structure of so created four-component system was elucidated by means of an analysis of isotropic area magnitudes in the phase diagram. Conductivity (?), kinematic viscosity (kh) and surface tension (g) studies with the variation in ?w (weight fraction of aqueous phase) show the occurrence of structural changes from water-in-oil (w/o) microemulsion to oil-in-water (o/w). Along with the solubility and partition studies of piroxicam in microemulsion components, the changes in the microstructure of the microemulsion after incorporation of drug have been evaluated using pH, ?, g, kh and density studies. Piroxicam, a poorly water soluble drug, displayed high solubility (1 .0%) in an optimum microemulsion formulation using Ethanol (55.0%), Tween 80 (26.5%), Castor oil (7.5%), and Phosphate buffer (11.0%). The results have shown that the microemulsion remained stable after the incorporation of piroxicam. Fluorescence spectra analysis taking pyrene as fluorescent probe was performed and the results showed that pyrene was completely solubilized in the oil phases of the bicontinuous microemulsions. The fluorescence spectrum of model drug piroxicam was used to probe the intramicellar region of nonionic microemulsion. The results showed that the piroxicam was localized in the interfacial film of microemulsion systems more deeply in the palisade layer with ethanol as the co-surfactant. Keywords: Microemulsion; Piroxicam; Isotropic area; Spectroscopy; Structural changes Introduction Piroxicam is a non-steroid anti-inflammatory compound with analgesic and antipyretic effects, used for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis and traumatic contusions. However, it has been associated with gastrointestinal side effects. It is possible to minimize these problems by developing drug carriers to prevent the direct contact of drug with gastric mucosal or that allow the topical administration of drug (1, 2). Microemulsions are optically isotropic, transparent and thermodynamically stable homogeneous solutions of oil and water, stabilized by addition of a surfactant and usually a cosurfactant (3, 4). These structures have been considerably investigated as drug delivery and carrier system for a wide range of drugs including analgesics and anti-inflammatory and also used to dissolve lipophilic drugs in aqueous medium or hydrophilic drugs in lipophilic medium (4, 5). Oil in water microemulsions have been described as a reservoir system that can inhibit drug release, increasing the topical effect (6). Several mechanisms have been proposed to explain the advantages of microemulsion or the transdermal delivery of drugs (7). First, a large amount of drug can be incorporated in the formulation due to the high solubilizing capacity, with increased thermodynamic activity towards the skin. Second, the permeation rate of a drug from microemulsion may be increased, since the affinity of the drug to th e internal phase in microemulsion can be easily modified, to favor partitioning, using different internal phases and changing the composition of the microemulsion. Third, the surfactant and cosurfactant used in the microemulsion may reduce the various diffusional barrier by acting as penetration enhancers (8, 9). For the selection of components of a biocompatible microemulsion system, the use of non-ionic surfactants has been widely accepted, since these are compatible and retain its utility over a broad range of pH values and may affect the skin barrier function (10-12). Microemulsion comprises different structures (water-in-oil (w/o), oil-in-water (o/w) and bicontinuous) and these help in releasing the drug (13, 14). It is necessary to characterize the microstructure of pure and drug-loaded microemulsion. The changes in the internal structure of a microemulsion can be monitored by analyzing conductivity, viscosity, density, surface tension and the fluorescence probe studies, etc. (15-17). The incorporated drug may or may not influence the microstructure. o/w and w/o microemulsions may show different behavior for the release of both hydrophilic and lipophilic drugs. In the present work, an attempt has been made to construct a microemulsion system, for poorly water soluble non-steroid anti-inflammatory drug piroxicam, comprising castor oil, a non-ionic surfactant Tween 80, a short chain alkanol cosurfactant (ethanol) and phosphate buffer (PB) pH 7.4. The pseudo-ternary phase diagram has been constructed for the chosen system at a constant surfactant:cosurfactant ratio (1:2). The reason for the selection of the particular oil chosen was that the castor oil has a hydroxyl group in addition to unsaturation, making it more polar. Ricinoleic acid is the main component of castor oil and it exerts anti-inflammatory effects (18). Polyoxyethylene fatty acid, stearic acid, oleic acid are used in emulsifiers in oil/water type creams and lotions. Conductivity, viscosity, surface tension and the fluorescence behavior of the pyrene is employed to investigate the gradual changes occurring in the microstructure of microemulsion. Pyrene is popular fluorescent probe which is used to study the microheterogeneous media. The fluorescence spectrum of Pyrene was used to sense the micropolarity of the o/w microemulsion. In this study, it is analyzed that how stability, optical texture and microstructure of microemulsion formulation, is influenced by piroxicam. To improve the solubility of piroxicam, an effort has been made to develop an optimum o/w microemulsion. It is therefore expected that the use of microemulsion formulation may enhance the solubility of piroxicam and prevent its degradation. Materials and Methods Materials Tween 80 (polyoxyethylene sorbitan monooleate), absolute ethanol (99.8 ? %) and castor oil were purchased from Fluka. Pyrene (98 %) was purchased from Sigma-Aldrich. Piroxicam was generously provided by Amson Vaccines Pharma (PVT) Ltd and used without further purification. Phosphate buffer (0.01 M, pH 7.4) was used as the hydrophilic phase. Buffers were prepared using NaH2PO4/Na2HPO4. 0.1M NaOH and HCl were used to maintain the pH of the solution. Methods Microemulsion Preparation The pseudo-ternary phase diagram was mapped (as shown in Fig. 1) using oil (castor oil), surfactant (Tween 80; HLB = 15), cosurfactant (ethanol) and aqueous phase PB (pH 7.4) at 25 ±0.01 ?C with constant surfactant:cosurfactant mass ratio (1:2). The temperature was kept at 25 ±0.01 ?C and was maintained by a Lauda M-20 thermostat. Castor oil was first mixed with Tween 80/ethanol mixture; PB was then added to obtain the desired microemulsion compositions. Transparent, single-phase mixtures were designated as microemulsions. All the samples were stable for over 10 months, remaining clear and transparent. Drug incorporation in Microemulsion Eight microemulsions differing from each other by Fw, were selected from the single-phase region of phase diagram (Fig. 2) with compositions mentioned in table I, to study their potential as drug delivery system. All of them show stability over 10 months and remain clear and transparent. Piroxicam was dissolved into the pre-weight oil component of the system at a concentration of 1% (w/w) under stirring followed by addition of remaining components. Microemulsion Characterization Optical Transparency The homogeneity and optical isotropy of pure and drug loaded microemulsions were examined by a Polarimeter (ATAGO, AP-100 Automatic Polarimeter) and visual examination at room temperature. Centrifugation Thermodynamic stability of pure and drug-loaded microemulsions was tested by carrying out centrifugation at 5500 rpm for 20 min using (Hermle Z200) centrifuge. Surface Tension Surface Tension measurements were made at 25  ±0.010C under atmospheric pressure by Torsion Balance (White Elec. Inst. Co. Ltd.) equipped with a ring having circumference of 4.0 cm. The experimental error was about  ±0.05 mNm-1. Density and Specific Gravity Densities and Specific Gravity of pure and drug loaded microemulsions were measured by making use of an Anton Paar (Model DMA 5000) density meter at 25  ±0.01 ?C. The density meter was calibrated before and after each set of density measurement using the density of air and pure water. Refractive Index The refractive indices of the formulations were determined using a refractometer (ATAGO, RX-5000) by placing 1 drop of solution on the slide. pH The apparent pH of all the selected microemulsions and the drug loaded microemulsion was determined using a pH Meter (WTW 82362 Weilheim) fitted with a pH electrode (WTW A061414035). The temperature was maintained at 25 ±0.01 ?C by a Lauda M-20 thermostat. Conductivity Measurements The effect of the amount of water phase of microemulsion was monitored quantitatively by measuring the electrical conductivity. The electric conductivity (?) was measured by means of a Microprocessor Conductivity Meter (WTW 82362 Weilheim) fitted with an electrode (WTW 06140418) having a cell constant of 1.0 cm-1. The temperature was kept at 25 ±0.01 ?C and was maintained by a Lauda M-20 thermostat. Conductivity measurements were carried out by titration of oil and surfactant/cosurfactant mixture with buffer (along the dilution line AB in Fig. 1). Further the conductivity of selected and drug loaded microemulsions was also measured. The error limit of conductance measurements was  ±0.02 ?scm-1. Viscosity Measurements Viscosities were measured with calibrated Ubbelhode viscometer at 25 ±0.1 ?C. For each measurement, the viscometer was washed, rinsed and vacuum dried. To follow the viscous behavior of the microemulsions, flow time was measured for all the selected and drug-loaded microemulsions (1 wt% drug). The error limit of viscosities measurements was  ±3%. Absorption and Steady-State Emission Measurements The absorption and steady-state fluorescence spectra were recorded using a Perkin Elmer Lambda 20 spectrophotometer and a Perkin Elmer LS 55 luminescence spectrometer, respectively, both with an external temperature controlled cell holder at a temperature of 25.0 ±0.1 °C. The fluorescence emission spectrum of pyrene (excitation at 340 nm) was used to obtain the ratio of intensities of the first to the third vibronic peaks (I1/I3). Good resolution of the bands was obtained at the slit width (ex. 5.0nm, em. 5.0 nm). The scan range used was from 350-500 nm. The Photo Multiplier tube voltage was kept at 665V. The concentration of pyrene was 1.0 ?M. The intensities for I1 and I3 are taken at 373 and 384 nm, respectively. The fluorescence emission spectrum of piroxicam at ?exc 370 nm was obtained where the emission and excitation slits were fixed at. 7.0 nm. The scan range used was from 390-650 nm. The concentration of piroxicam was 10.0 ?M. To quantify the solubilization of piroxicam in micellar media of Tween 80-Ethanol system, differential absorbance measurements were made in such a way that drug (piroxicam) solution of a particular concentration (1.0-10-5M) was kept on reference side and the Tween 80-Ethanol-Piroxicam solution on the sample side in the spectrophotometer. Partition Coefficients Oil/buffer partition coefficient was determined by dissolving 20 mg piroxicam in 2ml Castor Oil. Buffer was added in 1:1 ratio (v/v). The mixture was shaken for 10 min and centrifuged for 2 hours. The two layers were separated and the content of piroxicam in aqueous layer (PB) was assayed by UV-Visible spectrophotometer at 371 nm. The final content of drug in the lipophilic phase was calculated by subtracting the content of piroxicam in aqueous phase from initial loaded content of drug in the lipophilic phase. Further, the effect of presence of Tween 80 and ethanol on the partition of piroxicam in oil/buffer was studied by adding 5% (w/v) of each Tween 80 and ethanol. Results and Discussion In the present system, microemulsion was prepared using Castor oil (fatty acid), which induces highly permeable pathways in the stratum corneum (18-20). Tween-80 is a widely accepted non-ionic surfactant, used in many pharmaceutical formulations (21-23). The cosurfactant (ethanol) is used to study the one phase microemulsion region. The presence of alcohol overcomes the need for any additional input of energy. These properties make the components useful as vehicles for drug delivery (24-26). In the absence of aqueous phase, a solution-like oily phase consisting only of surfactant, oil, and ethanol exists. Ethanol interacts with the ethoxylated head groups of the Tween 80 by hydrogen bonding and affects its critical packing parameter (CPP). When water is progressively added to the concentrate it facilitates the organization of the hydrated head groups of the surfactant into a polar core while the fatty acid tails are immersed in the oil continuous phase. The ethanol suppresses formation of lyotropic liquid crystals. Any free aqueous phase is entrapped in the microstructures. Thus, w/o microstructures are formed. Upon further dilution, the reversed nanostructures grow and convert into a bicontinuous phase and finally invert into o/w microstructures without phase separation. Phase Studies Fig. 1 shows the pseudo-ternary phase diagram and area of existence of microemulsion for Tween-80/ethanol/castor oil/phosphate buffer. Microemulsion in the present study formed spontaneously at ambient temperature when their components were brought in contact. Phase behavior investigations of this system demonstrated the suitable approach of determining the water phase, oil phase, surfactant concentration, and cosurfactant concentration with which the transparent, 1-phase low-viscous microemulsion system was formed. The phase behavior, as shown by figure 1, manifests a two-phase region, a three-phase region and a large single-phase region which gradually and continuously transformed from buffer rich side of binary solution (buffer/surfactant micellar phase) of pseudo-ternary phase diagram towards the oil rich region. This stresses a continuous transition from a water rich compositions to oil swollen micelles. The phase study revealed that the maximum proportion of oil was incorporated in microemulsion systems when the surfactant-to-cosurfactant ratio was 1:2. From a formulation viewpoint, the increased oil content in microemulsions may provide a greater opportunity for the solubilization of piroxicam. Eight microemulsions (1-8) were selected from the single-phase isotropic region (Fig. 2), with compositions mentioned in table I. Selected Microemulsion (ME) was further analyzed by conductivity, viscosity, density, surface tension, refractive index and pH. The values of measured parameters have been presented in table II. Conductivity Measurements Conductometry is a useful tool to assess microemulsion structure. Conductivity studies have explained the existence of a characteristic zone with an isotropic microemulsion domain in a continuum. Determination of electric conductivity (s) as a function of weight fraction of aqueous component Fw (% wt) for the oil, surfactant/cosurfactant mixture along the dilution line AB (shown in Fig. 2) has been carried out. The results of variation of s vs Fw (% wt) are shown in Fig. 3 (a). The behavior exhibits profile characteristic of percolative conductivity (27-29). The conductivity is initially low in an oil-surfactant mixture but increases with increase in aqueous phase. As the volume fraction of water increases, the electrical conductivity of the system slightly increases as well, until the critical Fw is reached. At this stage, a sudden increase in conductivity is observed. This phenomenon is known as percolation, and the critical Fw at which it occurs is known as percolation threshold Fp (27). The value of conductivity below Fp suggests that the reverse droplets are discrete (forming w/o microemulsion) and have little interaction. Above Fp the value of s increases linearly and steeply till it touches the value of Kb. The interaction between the aqueous domains becomes progressively more important and forms a network of conductive channel (bicontinuous microemulsion) (30). Rapid increase in conductivity beyond the percolation threshold (Fp ? 6%) up to approximate value of 20% of Fw indicates the existence of network of conductive channels, which corresponds to the formation of water cylinders or channels in an oil phase due to the attractive interactions between the spherical micro-droplets of water phase in the w/o microemulsion. Increasing water content above Fb (Fw > 20%), the s shows a dip in the measured values which may be due to strong attractive forces as system becomes more viscous (16, 30).Fig. 3 (b) depicts the variation of log s vs weight fraction of water (Fw). The change in the slope of log s can be attributed to the structural transition to bicontinuous from w/o (23), nearly at Fw = 6%. The transition takes place once the aqueous phase becomes continuous phase i.e. at Fb. This is in line with the observation made in phase study. Figure 3(a) illustrates occurrence of three different structures (namely w/o, bicontinuous, o/w). The conductivity of the microemulsions containing more than 20 wt% water decreased significantly, probably due to the higher viscosity. The percolation threshold can be determined from the plot (ds/dFw), as a function of the water weight fraction, Fw (% wt) (30). A maximum in the first derivative of conductance Fw at ~12wt % water is observed (Fig. 4) confirming the presence of percolation behavior (bicontinuous microstructure) in this region (31). The electric conductivity of pure selected and drug loaded microemulsion (1.0%) is given in table II. A comparison of two systems shows that drug incorporation does not affect the microstructure of the microemulsion. Viscosity Measurements To avoid the ambiguity of non-Newtonian flow behavior of microemulsion the flow time has been used as an index of viscosity (32). Flow time of oil, surfactant/cosurfactant mixture along the dilution line AB (shown in Fig. 2), was measured as a function of weight fraction of water Fw (wt %) and is shown in Fig. 5. Similar trend has been observed for the viscosity of oil, surfactant/cosurfactant mixture as a function of Fw (Fig. 6). The rapid change in the viscosity is probably due to the change in the microstructure of the microemulsion. The change in the internal structure could be due to either the change in the shape of droplets or may be due to the transition from w/o to bicontinuous microemulsion. It is well known that increase of volume fraction of dispersed phase in microemulsion increases viscosity of the system (33). For the system studied viscosity increases with increase in Fw (wt% of aqueous phase). Difference in the viscosities is more profound for lower water content values in comparison to the dilute system. The microemulsion system is turning to be more viscous with addition of water and thus may help in the slow diffusing of drug at infinite dilution. The microemulsion system thus, shows a structural change from oil continuous system to water continuous, which has higher viscosities than the former (34). The plots of hk (kinematic viscosity), d2?/d2Fw and 1/? d?/dFw versus Fw reflect that the transition occurs at ~11% weight fraction of aqueous phase (Fig. 6). The transition point of surface tension, conductivity and viscosity plots coincides well at ~11% weight fraction of aqueous phase and confirms the presence of percolative behavior. Surface Tension The surface tension increases linearly over the same range of water content (Fig. 7), but two breaks (at ~7.0 and ~20 wt% water) suggest that structure changes occur at these compositions. The surface tension measurements showed increment, when measured as a function of weight fraction of aqueous component, except for the ~12% weight fraction where the value suddenly decreased and thereafter a regular increase was observed. This low surface tension value showed the presence of bicontinuous microemulsion between oil and water rich system, which is because of presence of self-assembled organize microstructure in it (14, 35). The results coincide well with the electric conductivity and viscosity measurements. It can be assumed that the added alcohol (ethanol) is incorporated in the interfacial structure in such a way that more water is on the outside of the oil drops, causing the increase in surface tension. Incorporation of drug showed a negligible change in the surface tension measure ments, therefore indicting the possibility of piroxicam molecules into the palisade layer on the inner side of microemulsion. Fluorescence Measurements In the case of oil-in-water microemulsions, the steady-state fluorescence technique was successfully applied (36). Fluorescence measurements of the hydrophobic probe mainly depend on the polarity of the medium and hence in bicontinuous microemulsions it is a good indication of the polarity of the microenvironment in the microemulsion structure (37). The fluorescence spectra for pyrene molecule in water, individual oil phase, in alcohols, in ethanol/oil and in all the selected microemulsions are shown in Figure 8. There are four principal vibronic bands in the fluorescence spectrum (Fig. 8a), labeled I to IV. The peak intensity ratio I1/I3 in the steady-state fluorescence spectra is a measurement of the relative polarity of pyrenes environment (17). Since pyrene reactant is substantially more soluble in oil phases, I1/I3 is expected to be lower in these phases (38). In the present work, for oil phase, the I1/I3 value is 0.68. In relatively polar methanol and ethanol media, I1/I3 values were found to be 1.20 and 1.09 respectively. Water is a highly polar solvent; the solubility of pyrene in this solvent is less than 2 ?M. Hence the possibility of formation of excimer leading to I3 signal is extremely low in water. Experimentally I1/I3 value is 1.70 was obtained for this medium. Plot of I1/I3 versus weight fraction of aqueous component composition in microemulsion is shown in Figure 9. The value of I1/I3 varies between 0.85 and 0.91, which is comparable to a change from oil to water (0.68 and 1.70, respectively). The I1/I3 fluorescence ratios of pyrene strongly suggest that this probe resides in microenvironments of polarity much lower (oil phase) than that of water or alcohol (39). The polarities of these microphases are similar to those of cosurfactant/oil mixtures (0.94). The following generalizations may be made regarding the fluorescence probe behavior in bicontinuous microemulsions. The I1/I3 values obtained by fluorescence measurements for all the stable bicontinuous microemulsions are closer to 0.88. These results suggest that pyrene is efficiently segregated from the water phase (40). The I1/I3 values in bicontinuous microemulsions systems are closer to the respective pure oil phase. This is due to complete solubility of pyrene in oil phases of the bicontinuous microemulsions. We conclude that all the microemulsions have separate oil microphases, in which pyrene resides. Fluorescence Behavior of Piroxicam The fluorescence spectra for piroxicam molecule in water, individual oil phases, in surfactant/cosurfactant mixture (1:2) and in the optimum microemulsion system are shown in Figure 10. For oil phase the emission maxima (lem) is 465nm. In S/CoS (1:2) system lem is 451nm. Water is a highly polar solvent; the solubility of piroxicam in this solvent is low than 10 ?M. The lem of piroxicam in water is 442nm. The emission maximum in bicontinuous microemulsion system is (462nm) closer to the respective pure oil phase. The results showed that the piroxicam was localized in the interfacial film of microemulsion systems more deeply in the palisade layer. Partition Coefficient Partition coefficients influence drug transport characteristics which involve drug absorption, retention, distribution and elimination. Since drugs are distributed by the blood, they must penetrate and traverse many cells to reach the site of action. Hence, partition coefficients will determine what tissues a given compound can reach. Oil/buffer Partition Coefficients The partition coefficient (log p) of piroxicam in oil/buffer is 5.03 ±0.20. The presence of ethanol (5% in buffer) does not affect the partition coefficient (data shown in table III) whereas Tween 80 (5% in buffer) reduces the log p. The presence of surfactant reduces the concentration of drug in oil. Thus, solubility and partition studies indicate that piroxicam may be present at interface. The drug is entering into the palisade layer on the inner side of droplet which may help to increase the solubility of piroxicam. The partition coefficients were calculated using equation 1 (41); where A(org) is the absorbance of the organic layer, A(aq) is the absorbance of the aqueous layer, Vf(org) is the final volume of the sample from the organic layer, V(org) is the volume of the aliquot from the organic layer, Vf(aq) is the final volume of the sample from the aqueous layer, V(aq) is the volume of the aliquot of the aqueous layer. Micelle/buffer Partition Coefficient Figure 11 shows the differential absorption spectra of drug (piroxicam) in presence of various concentrations of Tween 80 having constant S/CoS ratio (1:2). The buffer-micelle partition coefficient Kc (dm3 mol-1), a useful parameter to quantify the solubilization of piroxicam in micellar media of Tween 80-Ethanol system, can be calculated by using equation 2 (42). Here Ca is the drug concentration (1.0-10-5M), Csmo represents Cs-CMC0 (CMC0 is the CMC of Tween 80 in water i.e. 11.0mM), ?A? is the differential absorbance at the infinity of Cs. Kc can be obtained through intercept and slope values of the straight line plot of 1/?A against 1/ (Ca+ Csmo), as shown in Figure 12. The value of Kc is given in table IV. The dimensionless partition coefficient p is related to Kc as p = Kc.nw, where nw is the number of moles of water per dm3 (55.5 mol dm-3), and is reported in table IV. The standard free energy change of the transfer of additive, from bulk water to micelle can be calculated using the following relation (equation 3): Here T is absolute temperature and R is the gas constant. The value of ?G °p for the piroxicam, using p is reported in table IV. High negative value of indicates the ease of penetration of drug inside the micelles. This is clearly exhibited by the higher values of p and more negative for piroxicam, as shown in table IV. Tween 80 is nonionic surfactant and there is no electrostatic interaction, the hydrogen bonding between the polyoxyethylene groups of Tween 80 and piroxicam makes the complex (Tween 80-piroxicam) more hydrophobic, which corresponds to high ?G °p value. Conclusion The pseudo-ternary phase diagram and area of existence of microemulsion for Tween 80/ethanol/castor oil/buffer was delineated. The conductivity and viscosity studies along the dilution line (in phase diagram) depict the structural transition from w/o to o/w via bicontinuous phase at ~11% ?w (wt% fraction of aqueous phase). Among the eight selected microemulsions, ME was found to be optimum for the incorporation of piroxicam. After the incorporation of the drug, microemulsion remained stable and optically clears with no phase separation. The surface tension and fluorescence studies indicated that the drug may reside at the interface of oil and aqueous phase. The drug is entering into the palisade layer on the inner side of the droplet, resulting in controlled release of drug. Thus, we can conclude that this microemulsion system helps in increasing the solubility of a highly hydrophobic drug, with the help of hydrophobic component of microemulsion and lipophilic part of surfactant. In addition, the formulation can be explored with high concentration of drug. Pharmaceutically usable microemulsion system was prepared from water and castor oil with a constant amount of Tween-80 and ethanol at a mass ratio of 1:2. Its type and structure was examined by measuring surface tension, viscosity, electric conductivity, and the fluorescence techniques were assessed. 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